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Eating and Drinking Places

Nature of the Industry  |  Working Conditions  |  Employment  |  Occupations in the Industry
Training and Advancement  |  Job Outlook  |  Earnings

Significant Points

• Eating and drinking places provide many young people with their first jobs—in 2000, 25 percent of all workers in these establishments were aged 16 to 19, 5 times the average for all industries.
• Cooks, waiters and waitresses, and other food preparation and serving workers held almost 9 out of 10 jobs.
• Thirty-eight percent of all employees work part time, more than double the overall average.
• Job opportunities will be plentiful due to high turnover; there are few or no formal education or training requirements, and earnings tend to be relatively low.

Nature of the Industry

So fundamental are the services provided by eating and drinking places, that this may be the world’s most widespread and familiar industry. In the United States, the eating and drinking places industry comprises about 458,000 places of employment in large cities, small towns, and rural areas. These establishments include all types of restaurants, from fast food to elegant and expensive. They also include drinking places—establishments that primarily sell alcoholic beverages for consumption on the premises. 

Restaurants make up the majority of establishments in this industry. The most common type is a franchised operation of a nationwide restaurant chain that sells fast food. According to the National Restaurant Association, the fast-food component accounted for 1 out of every 3 eating and drinking places in 2000; the number of these establishments has grown steadily from 20 percent of the industry in 1970. A limited menu, lack of waiters and waitresses, and emphasis on self-service characterize these restaurants. Menu selections usually are prepared by workers with limited cooking skills. Because the food typically is served in disposable, take-out containers that retain the food’s warmth, it often is prepared prior to a customer’s request. A growing number of fast-food restaurants are providing drive-through and delivery services. 

Full-service restaurants, in contrast, offer broader menus with a variety of choices, including appetizers, entrées, salads, side dishes, desserts, and beverages. Waiters and waitresses usually serve meals at a leisurely pace, in comfortable surroundings. Although the number of full-service restaurants that are part of national chains is growing, the typical restaurant is independently owned and locally operated. Recently, many full-service restaurants have begun to focus on design, décor, and atmosphere to differentiate themselves from growing competition. The physical setting of the restaurant has become the primal focal point. However, the National Restaurant Association has found that the physical setting is of less importance at midscale or family-type restaurants. Customers frequenting these restaurants generally spend less time dining and are more interested in getting something to eat quickly. In upscale dining places, customers tend to linger for longer periods and, therefore, setting becomes quite important. 

Cafeterias open to the general public and those operated under contract by commercial food service companies make up another major segment of this industry. Like fast-food restaurants, cafeterias usually offer a somewhat limited selection, which varies from day to day. Yet, like full-service restaurants, their selections may require more culinary skills to prepare. Selections usually are prepared ahead in large quantities, and seldom are cooked to the customer’s order. 

Drinking places comprise about 11 percent of all establishments in this industry. Although considered drinking places, some bars and nightclubs offer patrons limited dining services in addition to alcoholic beverages. In some States, they also sell packaged alcoholic beverages for consumption off the premises. Establishments selling alcoholic beverages are closely regulated by State and local alcoholic beverage control authorities. 

Finally, the eating and drinking places industry includes a wide variety of specialized businesses, such as catering firms, concession stands at sports events, ice cream stores, and even dinner theaters. 

Working Conditions

Jobs in eating and drinking places are far more likely to be part time than are those in other industries; about 38 percent of the workers in eating and drinking establishments worked fewer than 35 hours a week in 2000, compared with 15 percent in the workforce as a whole. Full-time employees often are on the job during evenings, weekends, and holidays. Some employees are required to work split shifts—they work for several hours during one busy period, are off duty for a few hours, and then go back to work during the next busy period. Some employees work rotating shifts on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis. 

Although many eating and drinking places have well-designed kitchens and dining areas with state-of-the-art equipment, kitchens usually are noisy, and may be very hot near stoves, grills, ovens, or steam tables. Dining areas also are noisy when customers are present and servers are waiting on patrons. 

Workers directly involved in food preparation and services spend most of the time on their feet. Upper body strength often is needed to lift heavy items, such as trays of dishes or cooking pots. Work during peak dining hours can be very hectic and stressful. 

Employees who have direct contact with customers should have a professional and pleasant manner, which may be difficult to maintain over the course of a long shift. Excellent food that is poorly served can result in the failure of a restaurant, while average food served in an outstanding manner often results in success. Therefore, professional hospitality is required from the moment guests enter until the time they leave. 

In 1999, the rate of work-related injuries and illnesses was 5.6 per 100 full-time workers in eating and drinking places, slightly less than the average of 6.3 for the private sector. Work hazards include the possibility of burns from hot equipment, sprained muscles, and wrenched backs from heavy lifting and falls on slippery floors. 

Employment

This industry, particularly fast-food establishments, is a leading employer of teenagers—aged 16 through 19—providing first jobs for many new entrants to the labor force. In 2000, nearly 25 percent of all workers in eating and drinking places were teenagers, 5 times the proportion in all industries (table 1). About 45 percent were under age 25, triple the proportion in all industries.

Table 1. Percent distribution of employment in eating and drinking places by age group, 2000
Age group	Eating and drinking places	All industries
Total	100.0	100.0
16-19	25.2	5.4
20-24	19.8	9.9
25-34	21.1	22.6
35-44	17.7	27.1
45-54	10.1	22.0
55-64	4.4	10.0
65 and older	1.6	3.0

Occupations in the Industry

Employees in the various food preparation and serving and related occupations deal with customers in a dining area or at a service counter. Waiters and waitresses take customers’ orders, serve food and beverages, and prepare itemized checks. In finer restaurants, they may describe chef’s specials and suggest wines. In some establishments, they escort customers to their seats, accept payments, and set up and clear tables. In many larger restaurants, however, these tasks are assigned to other workers.
 

Table 2. Employment of wage and salary workers in eating and drinking places by occupation, 2000 and projected change, 2000-10. (Employment in thousands)
Occupation	Employment, 2000		Percent change, 2000-10
	Number	Percent
All occupations	8,114	100.0	18.3
Management, business, and financial occupations	387	4.8	16.8
Food service managers	237	2.9	24.7
General and operations managers	104	1.3	3.6
Service occupations	7,178	88.5	19.3
Chefs and head cooks	100	1.2	17.0
First-line supervisors/managers of food preparation and serving workers	414	5.1	9.6
Cooks, fast food	493	6.1	-1.3
Cooks, restaurant	560	6.9	26.9
Cooks, short order	140	1.7	-0.9
Food preparation workers	356	4.4	14.5
Bartenders	253	3.1	9.6
Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food	1,793	22.1	38.4
Counter attendants, cafeteria, food concession, and coffee shop	217	2.7	9.6
Food servers, nonrestaurant	62	0.8	9.6
Waiters and waitresses	1,664	20.5	24.8
Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers	273	3.4	-12.3
Dishwashers	372	4.6	-12.3
Hosts and hostesses, restaurant, lounge, and coffee shop	277	3.4	18.7
Building cleaning workers	66	0.8	9.6
Sales and related occupations	234	2.9	9.6
Cashiers, except gaming	209	2.6	9.6
Office and administrative support occupations	87	1.1	0.4
Transportation and material moving occupations	166	2.0	6.5
Driver/sales workers	118	1.4	9.6
NOTE: May not add to totals due to omission of occupations with small employment.

 
Other food service occupations include hosts and hostesses, who welcome customers, show them to their tables, and give them menus. Bartenders fill drink orders for waiters and waitresses and from customers seated at the bar. Dining room attendants and bartender helpers assist waiters, waitresses, and bartenders by clearing, cleaning, and setting up tables, as well as keeping service areas stocked with supplies. Counter attendants take orders and serve food at counters, cafeteria steam tables, and fast-food counters. Depending on the size and type of establishment, attendants also may operate the cash register.

Workers in the various food preparation occupations prepare food in the kitchen. Institutional and cafeteria cooks work in the kitchens of schools, hospitals, industrial cafeterias, and other institutions, where they prepare large quantities of a small variety of menu items. Restaurant cooks usually prepare a wider selection of dishes for each meal, cooking individual servings to order. Bread and pastry bakers typically produce small quantities of baked goods for sale or use in the establishment. Short-order cooks prepare grilled items and sandwiches in establishments that emphasize fast service. Fast-food cooks prepare a limited selection of items in fast-food restaurants, cooking and packaging batches of food that are either prepared to order or kept warm until sold. Food preparation workers shred lettuce for salads, cut up food, keep work areas clean, and perform simple cooking tasks under the direction of the chef or head cook. Dishwashers clean dishes, glasses, and kitchen accessories by hand or by machine.

Food service managers hire, train, supervise, and discharge workers in eating and drinking establishments. They also purchase supplies, deal with vendors, keep records, and help whenever an extra worker is needed in the kitchen or dining room. The executive chef oversees the kitchen, selects the menu, instructs the food preparation workers, and directs the preparation of food. In fine dining establishments, the maitre d' serves as host or hostess while overseeing the dining room. Larger establishments may employ a general manager, as well as a number of assistant managers. Many managers are part owners of the establishments they manage. 

Eating and drinking places employ a wide range of other workers, including accountants, advertising and public relations workers, bookkeepers, dietitians, mechanics and other maintenance workers, musicians and other entertainers, human resources workers, and various clerks. 

Training & Advancement

Although the skills and experience required by workers in eating and drinking places differ by occupation, many entry-level positions, such as waiter and waitress or food preparation worker, require little or no formal education or previous training. These jobs are most commonly held by young workers; for many youths, this is their first job. On-the-job training, typically under the close supervision of an experienced employee or manager, often lasts less than a week. Some large chain operations require formal training sessions for new employees and may use video training programs. 

Formal training of managers is common. Training seminars often can offer a variety of solutions to the many complex issues faced by food service managers. They can be a useful tool in helping to find motivated, quality employees and can improve retention rates. Training also can assist in improving morale, profitability, and customer service. As more restaurants use computers to keep track of sales and inventory, computer training is becoming increasingly integrated into management training programs. 

In smaller, independent restaurants, assistant managers learn their duties on the job, while most chain-affiliated establishments provide formal programs that introduce new managers to company procedures. Increasingly, establishments use video and satellite TV training programs to educate newly hired staff about quality and daily operational standards. Nationwide restaurant chains often operate their own schools for managers, where people nominated for assistant manager jobs attend training seminars before acquiring additional responsibilities. Eventually, successful assistant managers may advance to general manager of one of the chain’s establishments, or even to a top management position in a large chain operation. 

Completion of postsecondary training in culinary arts, restaurant and food service management, or a related field is increasingly important for advancement in the eating and drinking places industry. Completion of such a program often enables graduates to start as trainee chefs or assistant managers. Management programs last from 18 months to 4 years; upon completion, a bachelor’s degree is awarded. Programs are available through junior and community colleges, 4-year colleges and universities, trade schools, hotel or restaurant associations, and trade unions. The Armed Forces are another source of training and experience in food service work. 

Training for chefs has changed radically in the past 10 years, as chefs assume greater leadership and managerial roles in the industry. Today, most culinary programs offer more business courses, along with computer training, to better prepare chefs to manage a large operation. 

Promotion opportunities in eating and drinking places vary by occupation and the size of individual establishments. As in other industries, larger establishments and organizations usually offer better advancement opportunities. As beginners gain experience and basic skills, those who choose to pursue careers in eating and drinking places transfer to other jobs that require greater skill and offer higher earnings. Many workers earn progressively larger incomes as they gain experience by switching to jobs in other establishments offering higher compensation or requiring greater service skills and managerial responsibilities. For example, waiters and waitresses may transfer to jobs in more expensive or busier restaurants that offer larger tips. 

Advancement opportunities are better for food preparation workers, particularly for those who work in full-service restaurants. Starting as unskilled food preparation workers, some advance to cook jobs as they pick up skills in the kitchen, and from those jobs to more challenging chef positions. As chefs improve their culinary skills, their opportunities for professional recognition and higher earnings improve. 

Many managers of eating and drinking places obtain their positions through hard work and experience. Chefs often advance to executive chef positions, and food service workers often are promoted to maitre d' or other managerial jobs. Many managers of fast-food restaurants have advanced from the ranks of hourly workers. Managers with access to the necessary capital may even open their own eating and drinking places. 

Job Outlook

Increases in population, personal incomes, leisure time, and dual-income families will contribute to job growth. With a growing proportion of the population concentrated in the older age groups, moderately-priced restaurants that offer table service and that appeal to families should be the fastest growing segment of the eating and drinking places industry. Fine dining establishments, which appeal to affluent, often older, customers, also should grow as the 45-and-older population increases rapidly. The numbers of limited-service and fast-food restaurants that appeal to younger diners should increase more slowly than in the past. As schools, hospitals, and company cafeterias contract out institutional food services, jobs should shift to firms specializing in these services. Also, an aging population should drive up the demand for managerial and food service workers in nursing homes and assisted-living facilities through the year 2010. Some of the increased demand for food services will be met through more supermarket food service options, self-service facilities such as salad bars, untended meal stations, and automated beverage stations.

Occupational projections reflect different rates of growth among the various segments of the eating and drinking places industry (table 2). Employment of occupations concentrated in full-service restaurants—including skilled restaurant cooks and chefs, waiters and waitresses, and hosts and hostesses—is expected to increase faster than overall employment in the eating and drinking places industry. On the other hand, employment of occupations concentrated in limited-service and fast-food restaurants—including fast-food, cafeteria, and short-order cooks—is expected to increase more slowly than overall employment in the eating and drinking places industry or decline. Those who qualify—either through experience or formal culinary training—for skilled head cook, chef, and baker positions should be in demand. The greatest number of job openings will be in the largest occupations—waiters and waitresses, and combined food preparation and serving workers.

Employment of salaried managers is projected to grow as a result of rapid growth of chain and franchised establishments. Graduates of college hospitality programs, particularly those with good computer skills, should have especially good opportunities. The growing dominance of chain-affiliated eating and drinking places also should enhance opportunities for advancement from food service manager positions into general manager and corporate administrative jobs. Employment of self-employed managers of independent eating and drinking places is expected to increase more slowly.

Earnings

Earnings vary by occupation and by location, type, and size of establishment. Usually skilled workers, such as chefs, have the highest wages, and workers who receive tips have the lowest. Many workers in the industry earn the Federal minimum wage of $5.15 an hour, or less if tips are included as a substantial part of earnings. A number of employers provide free or discounted meals and uniforms to full- and part-time employees. Earnings in the largest occupations employed in eating and drinking places appear in table 4.
 

Table 4. Median hourly earnings of the largest occupations in eating and drinking places, 2000
Occupation	Eating and drinking places	All industries
Food service managers	$15.09	$15.25
First-line supervisors/managers of food preparation and serving workers	10.50	10.91
Cooks, restaurant	8.57	8.72
Food preparation workers	6.88	7.38
Hosts and hostesses, restaurant, lounge, and coffee shop	6.87	6.95
Dishwashers	6.62	6.69
Cooks, fast food	6.52	6.53
Combined food preparation and serving workers, including fast food	6.43	6.52
Waiters and waitresses	6.38	6.42
Dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers	6.38	6.53

 
Unionization is not widespread in the eating and drinking places industry. Only 1.7 percent of all employees are union members or are covered by union contracts, compared with 14.9 percent for all industries.

Source: Career Guide to Industries, Bureau of Labor Statistics

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