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Agricultural
Production Nature
of the Industry |
Working
Conditions |
Employment
|
Occupations
in the Industry
Training
and Advancement
|
Job
Outlook
|
Earnings
Significant
Points
- Small family farms constitute 91 percent of
all farms and own about two-thirds of all farmland, but large family and
commercial farms account over half of the total value of agricultural
production.
- Self-employed workers—mostly
farmers—account for more than half of the industry’s workforce.
- Employment in agricultural production is
projected to decline, especially among self-employed farmers and ranchers.
Nature of
the Industry
Agricultural production—consisting of farming and
ranching, including aquaculture—has long been a mainstay of the Nation’s
economy, successfully feeding and clothing the domestic population as well as
exporting agricultural goods around the world. Once a labor intensive industry,
providing jobs for at least 12 percent of the workforce as late as 1950, both
agricultural employment and the number of farms have dropped significantly in
recent decades because of mechanization and other technological improvements and
wide fluctuations in farm incomes due to unstable agricultural commodity prices.
Although approximately one-third the number of farms exists today as compared
with 50 years ago, output has more than doubled, exports of agricultural goods
continue to contribute positively to the foreign trade balance, and agricultural
production remains one of the Nation’s top industries in terms of total
employment.
Thanks to generally temperate climates, rich
soil, and a variety of growing conditions, the agricultural sector produces an
abundance and wide selection of products. The industry is roughly divided into
two major segments: livestock production, including animal specialties; and crop
production. Livestock production includes establishments that raise
livestock, such as beef cattle, sheep, and hogs; dairy farms; poultry and egg
farms; and animal specialty farms, such as apiaries (bee farms) and aquaculture
(fish farms). Crop production includes the growing of cash grains, such
as wheat, corn, and barley; field crops, such as cotton and tobacco; vegetables
and melons; fruits and nuts; and horticultural specialties, such as flowers and
ornamental plants.
About 2.1 million farms make up the agricultural
production industry. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, an
establishment must sell at least $1,000 worth of produce per year to qualify as
a farm. Almost 1.9 million, or 91 percent, are small family farms with less than
$250,000 in annual sales, but they own about two-thirds of the Nation's
farmland. Operation of these farms is the primary occupation of about one-third
of their owners; two-thirds are operated as a secondary source of income,
primarily as homes for the rural lifestyle they afford, or as limited retirement
enterprises. Large family farms numbered about 150,000 and commercially operated
farms barely 40,000, but together they were responsible for just over half of
the total output of the agricultural production industry.
Production of some types of crops and livestock
tends to be concentrated in particular regions of the country, on the basis of
growing conditions and topography. For example, the warm climates of Florida,
California, and Arizona are well suited for citrus fruit production. The
Southern States are the major growers of tobacco, cotton, rice, and peanuts,
while the Northeast, from Maine to New Jersey, produces blueberries, maple
syrup, and apples. Cranberry bogs are found mainly in Wisconsin, Massachusetts,
and New Jersey. Hogs, grains, potatoes, and range-fed cattle are major products
in the Plains States, where cattle feedlots also are numerous. In the Southwest
and West, ranchers raise beef cattle. In Washington State, apples are an
important crop. In California, most vegetables and fruits are prominent, as well
as grapes for wine. Poultry and dairy farms tend to be found in most areas of
the country.
The nature of the work in the agricultural
production industry varies, depending on the type of product. Consumption of,
and demand for, cash grains tend to be strong and steady, and these grains
account for a substantial part of agricultural output. They are generally grown
in large-scale operations in several areas in the Nation, but particularly in
the Midwest and Plains States. During the planting, growing, and harvesting
seasons, workers are busy for long hours, plowing, disking, harrowing, seeding,
fertilizing, and harvesting. Fieldwork on large farms consisting of hundreds,
sometimes thousands, of acres often is done using massive, climate-controlled
tractors and other modern agricultural equipment. In some cases, teams of
operators with tractors, combines, or other agricultural equipment travel from
one farm to another during harvest time in a practice known as “custom
harvesting.”
Small-scale establishments are more common in the
Northeast, while larger establishments are located elsewhere in the country,
particularly the Southwest and West. However, these small farms in States with
limited growing seasons cannot provide produce for markets during the late fall,
winter, and early spring. Therefore, fresh vegetables grown on large farms in
warm States, such as California, Florida, and Arizona are shipped throughout the
country in the cooler months. Vegetables generally are still harvested manually
by groups of migrant farmworkers, although new machines have been developed to
replace manual labor for some fruit crops. Vegetable growers on large farms of
approximately 100 acres or more usually practice “monoculture,” large-scale
cultivation of one crop on each division of land.
Dairy farms provide the Nation with milk, from
which cheese, butter, ice cream, and a variety of other products are made. Dairy
farming requires outdoor, as well as indoor, work. Farmers, farm managers, and
farmworkers must feed cows, heifers, and calves; clean their stalls; and take
them outside to pastures for exercise and grazing. Workers also may plant,
harvest, and store several crops to feed the cattle through the cold of winter
or the drought of summer.
Though the nature of the work on large livestock
ranches in the West and Southwest still entails the kind of activities—such as
branding and herding—often seen in cowboy movies, the use of modern equipment
and technology has changed the way the work is done. Branding and vaccinating of
herds, for example, are largely mechanized; and the use of trucks, portable
communications gear, and geopositioning equipment now is common and saves
valuable time for ranchers. The work on such establishments still tends to be
seasonal and to take place largely outdoors. Common activities include raising
feed crops, rotating cattle from one pasture to another, and keeping fences in
good repair.
Most poultry and egg farms are large operations
resembling production lines. Although free-range farms allow fowl some time
outside during the day for exercise and sunlight, most poultry production
involves mainly indoor work, with workers repeatedly performing a limited number
of specific tasks. Because of increased mechanization, poultry growers can raise
chickens by the hundreds—sometimes the thousands—under one roof. Eggs still
are collected manually in some small-scale hatcheries, but, in larger
hatcheries, eggs tumble down onto conveyor belts. Machines then wash, sort, and
pack the eggs into individual cartons. Workers place the cartons into boxes and
stack the boxes onto pallets for shipment.
Aquaculture farmers raise fish and shellfish in
salt, brackish, or fresh water—depending on the requirements of the particular
species. Farms usually use ponds, floating net pens, raceways, or recirculating
systems, but some fish farms are actually in the sea, relatively close to shore.
Workers on aquaculture farms stock, feed, protect, and otherwise manage aquatic
life to be sold for consumption or used for recreational fishing. Horticulture
farms raise ornamental plants, bulbs, shrubbery, sod, and flowers. Although much
of the work takes place outdoors, in climates with cold seasons, substantial
production also takes place in greenhouses or hothouses.
Although most agricultural establishments sell
their products to food processing and textile companies and food retailers, some
cater directly to the public. For example, some fruit and vegetable growers use
the marketing strategy of “pick-your-own” produce, or set up roadside
stands. Nurseries and greenhouses, which grow everything from seedlings to sod,
also provide products directly to individual consumers as well as to retail
establishments and other industries.
Working
Conditions
Agricultural production attracts people who enjoy
working with animals, living an independent lifestyle, or working outdoors on
the land. For many, the wide-open physical expanse, the variability of
day-to-day work, and the rural setting provide benefits that offset the
sometimes hard labor, the danger that unseasonable or extreme weather may stunt
or ruin crops, and the risk that unfavorable commodity prices may reduce income.
Although the working conditions vary by
occupation and setting, there are some characteristics common to most
agricultural jobs. Hours generally are uneven and oftentimes long; work cannot
be delayed when crops must be planted and harvested, or when animals must be
sheltered and fed. Weekend work is common, and farmers, agricultural managers,
crew leaders, farm-equipment operators, and agricultural workers may work a 6-
or 7-day week during planting and harvesting seasons. Graders and sorters may
work evenings or weekends because of the perishable nature of the products.
Almost 1 out of 4 employees in this industry work variable schedules, compared
with fewer than 1 in 10 workers in all industries combined. Because much of the
work is seasonal in nature, many farmworkers must cope with the difficulty in
obtaining year-round, full-time employment. Migrant farmworkers, who move from
location to location as crops ripen, live an unsettled lifestyle, which can be
stressful.
Much farm and ranch work takes place outdoors in
all kinds of weather and is physical in nature. Harvesting vegetables, in
particular, requires manual labor and workers do much bending, stooping, and
lifting. Some field workers may lack adequate sanitation facilities, and their
drinking water may be limited. The year-round nature of much livestock
production work means that ranch workers must be out in the heat of summer, as
well as the cold of winter. Those who work directly with animals risk being
bitten or kicked.
Farmers, farm managers, and agricultural workers
in crop production risk exposure to pesticides and other potentially hazardous
chemicals that are sprayed on crops or plants. Those who work on mechanized
farms must take precautions when working with tools and heavy equipment to avoid
injury. Farmwork has long had one of the highest incidences of illnesses and
injuries of any industry. In 1999, crop production had 7.0 injuries and
illnesses per 100 full-time workers, compared with an average of 6.3 throughout
private industry.
Employment
In 2000, agricultural production employed a total of
about 2 million workers, making it one of the largest industries in the Nation.
This industry is unusual in that self-employed workers account more than 40
percent of its workforce. Among workers in all agricultural production
occupations, over 1.1 million were wage and salary workers, 885,000 were
self-employed, and 34,000 were unpaid family.
Among the industry's wage and salary workers, the
single most common occupation was that of farmworkers, who made up nearly 54
percent of the overall workforce. The majority of self-employed workers were
farmers and ranchers, but they accounted for only about 3.3 percent of wage and
salary employment in this industry. Agricultural production is one of the few
remaining areas of the economy in which unpaid family workers remain a
significant part of the workforce. Most unpaid family workers on farms assist
with the farmwork, but a small number do bookkeeping and accounting or act as
farmers.
Employment is fairly evenly distributed between
livestock production and crop production, with livestock-producing
establishments employing about 50 percent of all workers and crop-producing
establishments employing the other 50 percent. Establishments specializing in
ornamental nursery products employed the largest number of workers in 2000,
followed by vegetable- and melon-producing farms and fruit orchards. Crop farms,
dairy farms, and vineyards also employed significant numbers of workers. Most
individual agricultural-production establishments, however, employ fewer than 10
workers.
Workers in agricultural production tend to be
older than workers in other industries. In 2000, 50 percent of the workers
livestock production were age 45 or older, compared with 35 percent for all
workers in all industries.
Occupations in the
Industry
| It takes several
kinds of occupational specialties—from bookkeepers, accountants, and
auditors to mechanics and repairers—to keep the industry functioning
(table 1). However, despite upgrades in technology, new forms of
machinery, and the complex financial records that must be kept, three
occupations still compose the overwhelming majority of workers in
agricultural production: Farmers, agricultural managers, and agricultural
workers.
Farmers and ranchers are the
self-employed owner-operators of establishments that produce agricultural
output. Their work encompasses numerous tasks. They keep records of their
animals’ health, crop rotation, operating expenses, major purchases,
bills paid and income due, as well as pay bills and file taxes. Computer
literacy has become as necessary for farmers as it has for many other
occupations.
Farmers and ranchers must have additional
skills to keep a farm or ranch operating day in and day out. A basic
understanding and working knowledge of mechanics, carpentry, plumbing, and
electricity all are helpful, if not essential, for running an agricultural
establishment. The ability to maintain and repair equipment and facilities
is important to keep costs down and the farm or ranch running smoothly.
Farmers who work large commercial farms for
cash crops make decisions as much as a year in advance about which crop to
grow. Therefore, a farmer must be aware of prices in national and
international markets to use for guidance, while tracking the costs
associated with each particular crop. When dealing in hundreds or
thousands of acres of one crop, even small errors in judgment are
magnified, so the impact can be substantial. Thus, large-scale farmers
strive to keep costs to a minimum in every phase of the operation.
Furthermore, risk management of portfolios—the practice of juggling
stocks, buying and selling futures, and engaging in other paper deals like
bond trading—is now becoming more important for farmers of large
commercial farms.
Farm, ranch, and other agricultural
managers operate the farm or ranch on a daily basis for the owners.
Agricultural managers perform many of the functions of farmers and
ranchers themselves, with the added tasks of managing the schedules and
work of the employees. They assign, monitor, and assess individuals’
work day in and day out. They may keep in order all the paperwork needed
to satisfy legal requirements, including payroll records and State and
Federal tax records.
Besides managing farms and ranches,
agricultural managers also oversee nurseries, greenhouses, timber tracts,
cotton gins, and packing houses, among other agricultural establishments.
Large commercial farms may have a manager
for different operations within the establishment. On smaller farms,
managers oversee all operations. They purchase the inputs used in the
farm’s production: Machinery, seed, fertilizers, herbicides and
pesticides, fuel, and labor. They must be aware of any laws that govern
the use of such inputs in the farm’s locality. Additionally, they may
hire and oversee other farm employees as they plow, disk, harrow, plant,
fertilize, harvest, and care for livestock. Agricultural managers must be
knowledgeable about crop rotation, soil testing, and various types of
capital improvements necessary to maximize crop yields.
Agricultural workers perform the whole
spectrum of daily chores involved in crop or livestock production. Graders
and sorters ensure the quality of the agricultural commodities that reach
the market. They grade, sort, or classify unprocessed food and other
agricultural products by size, weight, color, or condition. Farmworkers
and laborers, crops, nurseries, and greenhouse manually plant, maintain,
and harvest food crops; apply pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizer to
crops; and cultivate plants used to beautify landscapes. They prepare
nursery acreage or greenhouse beds for planting; water, weed, and spray
trees, shrubs, and plants; cut, roll, and stack sod; stake trees; tie,
wrap, and pack flowers, plants, shrubs, and trees to fill orders; and dig
up or move field-grown and containerized shrubs and trees. Additional
duties include planting seedlings, transplanting saplings, and watering
and trimming plants.
Farmworkers, farm and ranch animals
care for farm, ranch, or aquaculture animals that may include cattle,
sheep, swine, goats, horses and other equine, poultry, finfish, shellfish,
and bees. They also tend to animals raised for animal products, such as
meat, fur, skins, feathers, eggs, milk, and honey. Duties may include
feeding, watering, herding, grazing, castrating, branding, debeaking,
weighing, catching, and loading animals. They also may maintain records on
animals, examine animals to detect diseases and injuries, and assist in
birth deliveries and administer medications, vaccinations, or
insecticides, as appropriate. Daily duties include cleaning and
maintaining animal housing areas. These farmworkers also repair farm
buildings and fences. For farmworkers on dairy farms, the work may include
operating milking machines and other dairy-processing equipment and
hauling livestock products to market.
Some agricultural workers share duties as
farm-equipment operators, and handle the tractors and equipment used for
plowing, sowing, and harvesting using machinery such as fertilizer
spreaders, haybines, raking equipment, balers, combines, and threshers.
Table
1. Employment of wage and salary workers in Agricultural
production by occupation, 2000 and projected change, 2000-2010
(Employment in thousands) |
| Occupation |
Employment,
2000 |
Percent
change, 2000-2010 |
| Number |
Percent |
|
All occupations
|
1,120 |
100.0 |
-2.5 |
| |
|
Management,
business, and financial occupations
|
198 |
17.6 |
4.1 |
|
Farm, ranch, and
other agricultural managers
|
154 |
13.7 |
5.2 |
|
Farmers and
ranchers
|
36 |
3.3 |
0.4 |
| |
|
Service occupations
|
19 |
1.7 |
-1.7 |
|
Building and
grounds cleaning and maintenance occupations
|
14 |
1.3 |
-0.5 |
| |
|
Office and
administrative support occupations
|
46 |
4.1 |
-10.1 |
|
Bookkeeping,
accounting, and auditing clerks
|
18 |
1.6 |
-11.1 |
|
Secretaries and
administrative assistants
|
9 |
0.8 |
-11.8 |
| |
|
Farming, fishing,
and forestry occupations
|
771 |
68.8 |
-3.8 |
|
First-line
supervisors/managers/contractors of farming, fishing, and forestry
workers
|
35 |
3.1 |
1.2 |
|
Farmworkers
|
610 |
54.5 |
-5.0 |
|
Graders and
sorters, agricultural products
|
8 |
0.7 |
-8.3 |
|
All other farming,
fishing, and forestry workers
|
116 |
10.4 |
1.1 |
| |
|
Installation,
maintenance, and repair occupations
|
21 |
1.9 |
-1.5 |
|
Heavy vehicle and
mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics
|
8 |
0.7 |
-1.6 |
|
Other installation,
maintenance, and repair occupations
|
10 |
0.9 |
-2.0 |
| |
|
Production
occupations
|
13 |
1.2 |
-1.8 |
| |
|
Transportation and
material moving occupations
|
37 |
3.3 |
-1.8 |
|
Truck drivers,
heavy and tractor-trailer
|
13 |
1.1 |
1.3 |
|
Truck drivers,
light or delivery services
|
9 |
0.8 |
0.1 |
|
Material moving
occupations
|
12 |
1.1 |
-4.5 |
| |
| NOTE:
May not add to totals due to omission of occupations with small
employment. |
|
|
|
Training
& Advancement
The agricultural production industry is
characterized by a large number of workers with low levels of educational
attainment. More than 30 percent of this industry’s workforce does not have a
high school diploma, compared with only 12.5 percent of all workers in other
industries. The proportion of workers without a high school diploma is
particularly high in the crop-production sector, where there are more
labor-intensive establishments employing migrant farmworkers.
Training and education requirements for general
farmworkers are few. Some experience in farm or ranch work is beneficial, but
most tasks require manual labor and are learned fairly quickly on the job.
Advancement for farmworkers is somewhat limited. Motivated and experienced
farmworkers may become crew leaders or farm-labor contractors. Because firsthand
knowledge of farm produce is good preparation for grading, sorting, and
inspecting, some farmworkers may become agricultural inspectors. Farmworkers who
wish to become independent farmers or ranchers first must buy or rent a plot of
land.
Becoming a farmer generally does not require
formal training or credentials. However, knowledge and expertise about
agricultural production are essential to success for prospective farmers. The
traditional method for acquiring such knowledge is through growing up on a farm.
This background is becoming less and less common as the percentage of the U.S.
population raised on farms continues to dwindle. But even with a farming
background, a person considering farming would benefit from the formal schooling
offered by land-grant universities in each State. Programs usually incorporate
hands-on training into the curricula to complement the academic subjects.
Typical coursework covers the agricultural sciences (crop, dairy, and animal)
and business subjects such as accounting and marketing.
Experience and some formal education are
necessary for agricultural managers. A bachelor’s degree in business with a
concentration in agriculture provides a good background. Work experience in the
various aspects of farm or ranch operations enhances knowledge and develops
decision-making skills, which further qualifies prospective agricultural
managers. The experience of having performed tasks on other farming
establishments as a farmworker may save managers valuable time in forming daily
or monthly workplans and in avoiding pitfalls that could result in financial
burdens for the farm.
Whether it is gained through experience or formal
education, both farmers and agricultural managers need enough technical
knowledge of crops, growing conditions, and plant diseases to make sound
scientific and business decisions. A rudimentary knowledge of veterinary
science, as well as animal husbandry, is important for dairy and livestock
farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers.
It also is crucial for farmers, ranchers, and
agricultural managers to stay abreast of the latest developments in agricultural
production. They may do this by reviewing agricultural journals that publish
information about new cost-cutting procedures, new forms of marketing, or
improved production using new techniques. County cooperative extension agencies
serve as a link between university and government research programs and farmers
and farm managers, providing the latest information on numerous
agriculture-related subjects. County cooperative extension agents may
demonstrate new animal breeding techniques, or more environmentally safe methods
of fertilizing, for example. Other organizations provide information—through
journals, newsletters, and the Internet—on agricultural research and the
results of implementing innovative methods and ideas.
Some private organizations are helping to make
farmland affordable for new farmers through a variety of institutional
innovations. The Land Link program, run by the Center for Rural Affairs, matches
old farmers up with young ones. In the matching process, farmers approaching
retirement arrange to pass along their land to young farmers wishing to keep the
land under cultivation. This program has now been expanded to at least 18
States, and is now coordinated by the National Farm Transition Network.
Job Outlook
Increasing productivity in the highly efficient U.S.
agricultural production industry is expected to meet domestic consumption needs
and export requirements with fewer farms and less farm labor than in the past.
Market pressures should continue to drive the consolidation trend toward fewer
and larger farms through the 2000-10 period, resulting in a 7.8 -percent decline
of overall employment in agricultural production. The decline will be fastest,
at 14 percent, among self-employed and unpaid family workers, most of whom are
farmers. Employment of wage and salary workers will 2.5 percent.
In recent decades, new technology in the form of
larger and more efficient farm machinery and computerization of farm equipment
and financial systems have resulted in higher yields and increased productivity.
Further technological improvements will continue to boost output between 2000
and 2010.
Federal Government subsidy payments traditionally
have shielded many agricultural producers from the ups and downs of the market.
Currently, Federal policy is to open up the industry to competitive forces. In
the United States, the 1996 Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act (also
known as the 1996 Farm Act) was enacted to phase out price supports for
agricultural produce such as wheat, corn, grain sorghum, barley, oats, rice, and
upland cotton. If price supports disappear entirely, farm establishments that
grow such crops may experience wide fluctuations in incomes as they deal with
the adverse affects of climate and price changes. The 1996 Farm Act also calls
for replacing the Federal price support system for milk with new loan programs
beginning in the year 2000, allowing the milk prices received by dairy farmers
to be determined by market forces. Under these conditions, the larger and more
financially sound farms will be best able to cope with international and
domestic competitive forces. Owners of farms that do not have sufficient funds
to withstand the changes in the marketplace and still cover all operating costs
may eventually be forced to consolidate with larger operations or leave
agricultural production altogether. However, full implementation of the 1996
Farm Act may take several years, and some aspects of the legislation may
eventually be revised.
Employment on many farms will most likely
continue to be characterized by low wages and lack of benefits. This, combined
with continuously rising agricultural productivity, should translate into a
further reduction in the workforce. Employment of farmers and ranchers is
projected to decrease. Employment of agricultural managers, farmworkers, and
graders and sorters is projected to rise, but more slowly than the average for
all occupations. Prospects should be best for agricultural workers working in
nurseries and greenhouses.
Employment declines resulting from growing
productivity and consolidations might be counterbalanced somewhat by other
changes taking place in the agricultural production industry. Employment in
aquaculture, for example, has been growing steadily over the past 10 years in
response to growth in the demand for food fish. Because of low prices for some
agricultural commodities, more farmers—including some in the Midwest—are
switching to aquaculture production. New developments in marketing milk and
other agricultural produce through farmer-owned and -operated cooperatives hold
promise for many dairy and other farms. Furthermore, demand for organic farm
produce is growing. Consumers are becoming more conscious about the pesticides
and fertilizers used in conventional agriculture, allowing farms of small
acreage—which only 12 years ago appeared to have almost no future as working
farms—to remain economically viable. Also, Federal, State, and local
governments programs may increasingly provide assistance targeted at small
farms. For example, some programs allow farmers to sell the development rights
to their property to nonprofit organizations pledged to preserving green space.
This immediately lowers the market value of the land—and the property taxes
levied on it—making farming more affordable.
Earnings
In 2000, median earnings for workers in agricultural
production were $335 a week, substantially lower than the median of $580 a week
for all workers in private industry. In fact, only the highest 10 percent of
workers in agricultural production earned more than $630 a week. Lower than
average earnings are due in part to the low level of skill required for many of
the jobs in the industry and the seasonal nature of the work.
Farm income can vary substantially, depending on
a number of factors, including: The type of crop or livestock being raised,
price fluctuations for various agricultural products, and weather conditions
that affect yield. For a growing number of farmers and ranchers, particularly
those working noncommercial farms, crop or livestock production is not their
major occupation or source of income.
Source:
Occupational Outlook Handbook, Bureau of Labor Statistics
|
